Second Edition

Second Edition
Spring 2003
Proven ideas from research for parents
A Child Becomes
a Reader
A Child Becomes
a Reader
K I N D E R G A R T E N T H R O U G H G R A D E 3
Kindergarten through Grade 3
Produced by RMC Research Corporation, Portsmouth, New Hampshire
Authors
Bonnie B. Armbruster, Ph.D., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Fran Lehr, M.A., Lehr & Associates, Champaign, Illinois
Jean Osborn, M. Ed., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Proven ideas from research for parents
A Child Becomes
a Reader
A Child Becomes
a Reader
K I N D E R G A R T E N T H R O U G H G R A D E 3
Second Edition
Spring 2003
This publication was produced under National Institute for Literacy Contract No.
ED-00CO-0093 with RMC Research Corporation. Sandra Baxter served as the
contracting officer’s technical representative. The views expressed herein do not
necessarily represent the policies of the National Institute for Literacy. No official
endorsement by the National Institute for Literacy of any product, commodity, service,
or enterprise in this publication is intended or should be inferred.
The National Institute for Literacy
Sandra Baxter Lynn Reddy
Interim Executive Director Communications Director
Spring 2003
To order copies of this booklet, contact the National Institute for Literacy at EdPubs, PO
Box 1398, Jessup, MD 20794-1398. Call 800-228-8813 or email edpubs@inet.ed.gov. This
booklet can also be downloaded at The Partnership for Reading web site,
www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading.
The National Institute for Literacy, an independent federal organization, supports the
development of high quality state, regional, and national literacy services so that all
Americans can develop the literacy skills they need to succeed at work, at home, and in
the community.
The Partnership for Reading, a project administered by the National Institute for
Literacy, is a collaborative effort of the National Institute for Literacy, the National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the U.S. Department of Education,
and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to make evidence-based
reading research available to educators, parents, policy makers, and others with an
interest in helping all people learn to read well.
The Partnership for Reading acknowledges editorial support from C. Ralph Adler and
design support from Diane Draper, both of RMC Research Corporation.
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Contents
Introduction
The building blocks of reading and writing
Kindergarten
What to do at home
What to look for in kindergarten classrooms
What children should be able to do by the
end of kindergarten
First grade
What to do at home
What to look for in first grade classrooms
What children should be able to do by the
end of first grade
Second and third grades
What to do at home
What to look for in second and third grade
classrooms
What children should be able to do by the
end of second grade
What children should be able to do by the
end of third grade
Some helpful terms to know
Bibliography
Suggested reading for parents and caregivers
Resources for parents and caregivers
The road to becoming a reader begins the day a child is born and continues
through the end of third grade. At that point, a child must read with ease and
understanding to take advantage of the learning opportunities in fourth grade
and beyond—in school and in life.
Learning to read and write starts at home, long before children go to school.
Very early, children begin to learn about the sounds of spoken language when
they hear their family members talking, laughing, and singing, and when they
respond to all of the sounds that fill their world. They begin to understand
written language when they hear adults read stories to them and see adults
reading newspapers, magazines, and books for themselves.
Mothers, fathers, grandparents, and caregivers, this booklet is for you. Your
role in setting your child on the road to becoming a successful reader and writer
does not end when she* begins kindergarten.
This booklet contains:
● A short summary of what scientific research says about how children learn
to read and write
● Things you can do with your child at three different grade levels—
kindergarten, first grade, and second and third grades—to help him
become a reader, as well as what to look for in quality reading instruction
at each grade level
● A list of helpful terms. Throughout the booklet, these terms appear in
bold type.
● Ideas for books to read and organizations to contact if you would like
more help or information
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Introduction
* To make this
booklet easier to read,
we sometimes refer to a
child as “he” or “she.”
However, all of the information
about how
children learn to read
applies to both boys
and girls.
3
Try a few activities from this booklet with your child. You don’t need special
training or expensive materials. Just include the activities in the things you
already do together every day. Make these activities part of the warm, loving
relationship you are continuing to build with your child.
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5
building blocks
reading
writing
The
of
and
6
Talking and listening
From several decades of research, we have learned a lot about how children
learn to read and write. This research tells us that to become more skilled and
confident readers over time, children need lots of opportunities to:
● build spoken language by talking and listening
● learn about print and books
● learn about the sounds of spoken language (this is called
phonological awareness)
● learn about the letters of the alphabet
● be read to and read on their own
● learn and use letter-sound relationships (this is called phonics) and be
able to recognize words when they see them
● spell and write
● develop their ability to read quickly and naturally (this is called fluency)
● learn new words and build their knowledge of what words mean
(this is called vocabulary)
● build their knowledge of the world
● build their ability to understand what they read (this is called
comprehension)
Remember the old saying “children should be seen and not heard”? Research
tells us that for children to become readers, they should listen and talk a lot.
By the time children are one year old, they already know a lot about spoken
language—talking and listening. They recognize some speech sounds. They
know which sounds make the words that are important to them. They begin to
imitate those sounds. Children learn all of this by listening to family members
The building blocks of
reading and writing
7
talk. Even “baby talk,” which exaggerates the sounds and rhythms of words,
makes a contribution to children’s ability to understand language. Children who
do not hear a lot of talk and who are not encouraged to talk themselves often
have problems learning to read.
Even though books don’t come with operating instructions, we use them in
certain ways. We hold them right side-up. We turn the pages one at a time. We
read lines of words starting at the left and moving to the right. Knowing about
print and books and how they are used is called print awareness.
Print awareness is an important part of knowing how to read and write.
Children who know about print understand that the words they see in print and
the words they speak and hear are related. They will use and see print a lot,
even when they’re young—on signs and billboards, in alphabet books and
storybooks, and in labels, magazines, and newspapers. They see family members
use print, and they learn that print is all around them and that it is used for
different purposes.
Some words rhyme. Sentences are made up of separate words. Words have
parts called syllables. The words bag, ball, and bug all begin with the same
sound. When a child begins to notice and understand these things, he is
developing phonological awareness—the ability to hear and work with the
sounds of spoken language.
Print and books
Sounds in spoken language
The main source of information in this
booklet is the report of the National
Reading Panel, Teaching Children to Read:
An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific
Research Literature on Reading and Its
Implications for Reading Instruction. This report,
along with the other reports and books
listed at the back of this booklet, offer
more research-based information
about how children learn to read
and write.
When a child also begins to understand that spoken words are made up of
separate, small sounds, he is developing phonemic awareness. These individual
sounds in spoken language are called phonemes. For example, the word big has
three phonemes, /b/, /i/, and /g/.*
Children who have phonemic awareness can take spoken words apart sound by
sound (the name for this is segmentation) and put together sounds to make
words (the name for this is blending). Research shows that how easily children
learn to read can depend on how much phonological and phonemic awareness
they have.
Singing the alphabet song is more than just a fun activity. Children who go to
kindergarten already knowing the shapes and names of the letters of the
alphabet, and how to write them, have a much easier time learning to read.
Knowing the names and shapes of letters is sometimes called alphabetic
knowledge.
Reading aloud to children has been called the single most important activity for
building the knowledge required for success in reading. Reading aloud, with
children participating actively, helps children learn new words, learn more about
the world, learn about written language, and see the connection between words
that are spoken and words that are written.
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The ABCs
Reading aloud
* A letter between slash marks, /b/, shows the phoneme, or sound, that the letter represents,
and not the name of the letter. For example, the letter b represents the sound /b/.
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Phonics instruction helps beginning readers see the relationships between the
sounds of spoken language and the letters of written language. Understanding
these relationships gives children a tool that they can use to recognize familiar
words quickly and to figure out words they haven’t seen before.
Word-study instruction is the step that follows phonics instruction. It helps older
children learn to apply their phonics knowledge and knowledge of word parts
(such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words) as they read and write words.
Rapid word recognition means that children spend less time struggling over
words and have more time getting meaning from what they read, which, of
course, is the real purpose for reading.
Children learn more about how print works when they spell and write on their
own. When they begin to write, children draw and scribble. Later, they use what
they are learning about sounds and letters when they try to write words. This
often is called invented, or developmental, spelling. Because invented spelling
encourages children to think about the sounds in words and how the sounds
are related to letters, it can help preschool and kindergarten children develop
both as readers and writers. However, after kindergarten, children need wellorganized,
systematic lessons in spelling to help them become good spellers.
Fluency is the word for being able to read quickly and accurately. Fluent readers
recognize words automatically. They are able to group words quickly to help
them get the meaning of what they read. When fluent readers read aloud, they
read smoothly and with expression. Their reading sounds natural, like speech.
Readers who have not yet developed fluency read slowly, word by word.
Sometimes, their oral reading is choppy and plodding. They may make a lot of
mistakes.
Phonics and word-study skills
Spelling and writing
Fluency
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Vocabulary and knowledge of the world
Most beginning readers do not read fluently. However, by the end of first grade,
children should be reading their grade level books fluently.
Vocabulary is the name for words we must know in order to listen, speak, read,
and write effectively. Time and again researchers have found strong connections
between the size of children’s vocabularies, how well they comprehend what
they read, and how well they do in school.
Children who are poor readers often do not have the vocabulary knowledge
they need to get meaning from what they read. Because reading is difficult for
them, they cannot and do not read very much. As a result, they may not see
new words in print often enough to learn them. Good readers read more,
become better readers, and learn more words; poor readers read less, become
poorer readers, and learn fewer words.
Children learn vocabulary in two ways: indirectly, by hearing and seeing words
as they listen, talk, and read; and directly by parents and teachers teaching them
the meanings of certain words.
Vocabulary and knowledge of the world are, of course, very closely tied
together. Children who know something about the world are much better able
to understand what they read about in school.
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Comprehension
Comprehension means getting meaning from what we read. It is the heart of
reading. Research shows that knowledge of letter-sound relationships and
comprehension go hand-in-hand. If children can sound out the words, but don’t
understand what they are reading, they’re not really reading.
Children can build their comprehension by learning to use mental plans, or
strategies, to get meaning as they read. These strategies include using what they
already know to make sense of what they read, making predictions, paying
attention to the way a reading selection is organized, creating mental pictures,
asking questions, and summarizing.
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13
Kindergarten
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Talk with your child often…as you eat together, shop for groceries, walk to
school, wait for a bus. As she gets ready for school, ask about the stories and
poems she is reading and what projects she has in science or art time. Ask
about friends and classmates (encourage her to use their names) and to
describe the games they like to play together. Ask questions that will encourage
her to talk, and not just give “yes” or “no” answers.
Have your child use his imagination to make up and tell you stories. Ask
questions that will encourage him to expand the stories.
P A R E N T T A L K
“Why didn’t the dog just run away?”
“Where did the boy live?”
“What kind of eyes did the monster have?”
Have a conversation about recent family photographs. Ask your child to
describe each picture: who is in it, what’s happening, and where the picture
was taken.
Listen to your child’s questions patiently and answer them just as patiently.
If you don’t know the answer to a question, work together to find one (look
things up in a book or on the computer, for example).
Talk about books that you’ve read together. Ask your child about favorite
parts and characters and answer his questions about events or characters.
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Talk often with your child to build listening and
talking skills
What to do at home
15
Pay attention to how much TV your child is watching. Set aside “no TV” time
each day and use that time to talk together.
Tell stories about your childhood. Make a story out of something that
happened, such as a special birthday or a visit to a zoo or city.
As you read with your child, have him point out such things as front and
back covers and the title. Have him point out the names of authors and
illustrators and tell what those people do. Have him show you where you should
start reading on a page.
Help your child make connections between print and pictures as you read.
Have him find details in the pictures, then help him find and point to the words
that name those details.
Sing or say nursery rhymes and songs.
Play word games.
P A R E N T T A L K
“How many words can you say that rhyme with fox? With bill?”
Read a story or poem and ask your child to listen for words that begin with
the same sound. Have her say the words. Then have her say another word that
begins with that sound.
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2
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3
Show your child how books and print work
Focus your child’s attention on the sounds of
spoken language
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As you read, stop and say a simple word. Have your child say the sounds in
the word, write the letters for the sounds, and then read what he wrote.
P A R E N T T A L K
“’The dog is big.’ Big. Can you say the sounds in big? Now can you write
the letters for the sounds? Good. Now read the word to me.”
Point out letters and have your child name them.
Make an alphabet book with your child. Have him draw pictures or cut
pictures from magazines or use old photos. Paste each picture into the book.
With your child, write the first letter of the word that stands for the object or
person in the picture (for example, B for bird, M for milk, and so on).
Point out labels, boxes, newspapers, magazines, and signs that display
words with letter-sound relationships that your child is learning in
kindergarten.
Listen to your child read words and books from school. Be patient and listen
as your child practices. Let your child know you are proud of what he is
learning.
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1
2
Have your child identify and name the letters of
the alphabet
Support what your child is learning in school about
the relationship between letters and sounds
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When your child is writing, encourage him to spell words by using what he
knows about sounds and letters.
Encourage your child to write notes, e-mails, and letters to family members
and friends. You may have your child tell you the message for you to write and
include with her original work.
Have your child create his own picture book made with his own drawings
or with pictures that he cuts from magazines. Help him to label the pictures.
Include pictures that illustrate the new words he is learning.
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Encourage your child to spell and write
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1
2
3
As you read aloud, pause from time to time to ask him about the meaning
of the book. Help him make connections between his life and what’s
happening in the book. Explain new ideas and words to him. Encourage your
child to ask questions about the book. Ask him to retell the story, or to tell in his
own words what the book was about.
P A R E N T T A L K
“What was your favorite part of the story? Why did you like it?”
“What new things did you learn from this book?”
“Why do you think Sam got lost? Sam said he wanted to explore the forest.
Explore means he wanted to find out what was in the forest.”
Use and repeat important words such as names of buildings, parks, zoos,
cities, and other places that you visit.
Help your child develop an interest in the world. Read to him from your
magazines and newspapers, as well as from informational (nonfiction) children’s
books. Help him to explore ideas and interests by using appropriate web sites.
Help your child build vocabulary, knowledge of the
world, and comprehension
What to look for in kindergarten
classrooms
Developing talking and listening abilities
Teaching about books and print
The teacher…
shows children appropriate ways to
talk and listen, ask and answer
questions, and give and follow
directions.
The children…
talk with teachers and classmates
about what they have read and heard.
They retell stories that they have heard
read aloud. They make up and tell
their own stories. They may pretend to
be characters in play centers.
“Let’s play restaurant!”“I like this
book. It’s about snakes!”“I’ll be
the princess, and you be the
prince.”
The teacher...
shows children how books should be
handled, how they are read from front
to back, from the top to the bottom of
a page, and from left to right on a
page. He talks about the various kinds
of print in the classroom, including
their meaning and purpose.
The children...
enjoy books and reading. They see lots
of print around them being used in
many ways. They are curious about the
print and eager to learn what it means.
“What does this word say?”
“You’re supposed to write your
name on your folder.”
“See that list over there? I know
those color names!”
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In effective kindergarten classrooms, you will see literacy instruction that
focuses on…
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Teaching about the alphabet
Teaching the sounds of spoken language
The teacher…
helps children learn the names and
shapes of all the letters of the alphabet
and encourages the children to play
with letters and to write using letters.
The children…
listen to the teacher read them an
alphabet book, then sing the alphabet
song. Some children play with plastic
letters, while others say the letters as
they write their own names.
“That’s M!—M is the first letter in
my name.”
“I’m going to find all the e’s on
this page.”
“This is my favorite ABC book.”
The teacher…
provides explicit instruction in
phonological awareness and
phonemic awareness. The teacher
has children put together sounds
(blending) to make words and break
words into separate sounds
(segmentation). As the children write,
he promotes phonemic awareness by
encouraging them to use what they
know about the sounds that make up
words.
The children…
have fun with the sounds of words.
Early in the year, they tell which words
in a story rhyme; they may make up
their own nonsense rhymes. A little
later in the year, they listen for the
beginning sounds of the words in a
poem. They also may clap out the
number of syllables in their names and
in words. Late in the year, they put
together and take apart the separate
sounds in words. They begin to relate
sounds to letters and to write the
letters for the sounds that they hear.
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Teaching phonics
The teacher…
uses explicit instruction to teach
children a set of the most useful lettersound
relationships.
The children…
read easy books that contain words
with the letter-sound relationships they
are learning. They are also writing the
relationships they know in words,
sentences, messages, and their own
stories.
Phonemic
awareness:
What blending
and
segmentation
look like
Phoneme blending: teachers say a word phoneme by
phoneme, then have the children repeat the sequence of
phonemes and combine the phonemes to say the word.
Teacher: /s/ /u/ /n/
Children: /s/ /u/ /n/; sun.
Phoneme segmentation: teachers say a word, then have the children break it
into its separate phonemes, saying each one as they tap out or count it.
Teacher: slim
Children: /s/ /l/ /i/ /m/.
Teacher: How many sounds are in slim?
Children: Four sounds.
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Developing spelling and writing
Building vocabulary and knowledge of the world
The teacher…
has children practice their new writing
skills in groups with other children and
at learning centers. She makes spelling
development a part of writing
activities.
The children…
depending on the time of the year,
scribble, draw, label pictures, and use
their growing knowledge of sounds
and letters to write messages. They are
becoming aware of correct spellings
for some words, especially their
names.
The teacher…
talks with the children about important
new words and ideas as she reads
aloud. She helps them connect the
new words to their own knowledge
and experiences. She discusses words
that are most important for
understanding the reading selection.
She emphasizes words that the
children are likely to see and use often
and teaches children the meaning of
new words over an extended period of
time. She thinks about the content of
the books that she reads to the
children and chooses books that build
on and expand children’s knowledge.
The children…
learn lots of new words and like to
share their new words with their
families. They see the teacher’s
enthusiasm for words and enjoy
playing with words and language.
They use words that are important to
their schoolwork, such as the names
for colors, shapes, and numbers. They
explore new ideas and learn new
words.
“This is the picture I drew today.
It’s an octopus. I’ll show you—it
has eight legs!”
“We learned about circles today.
This plate is a circle.”
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Building comprehension
The teacher…
reads aloud to children often and
discusses books before, during, and
after reading. She reads many different
kinds of books, including “makebelieve”
(fiction), “real” (nonfiction),
and poetry. She shows children how
good readers get meaning from what
they read.
The children…
listen to and understand what is read
to them. They answer the teacher’s
questions. They make connections
between what they already know and
what they are reading about. They talk
about what they learned from nonfiction
books they have read, and they
retell or act out important events in
stories. They identify the characters,
settings, and events in stories.
“I learned that you can’t see
across the ocean!”
“I have a cat that looks just like
the cat in that story!”
“I want to be the Little Red Hen!”
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The following is a list of some accomplishments that you can expect of your
child by the end of kindergarten. This list is based on research in the fields of
reading, early childhood education, and child development. Remember, though,
that children don’t develop and learn at the same pace and in the same way.
Your child may be more advanced or need more help than others in her age
group. You are, of course, the best judge of your child’s abilities and needs. You
should take the accomplishments as guidelines and not as hard-and-fast rules. If
you have concerns about your child’s reading development, talk to his teacher.
By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
● Knows the parts of a book and how books are held and read
● Identifies a book’s title and understands what authors and illustrators do
● Follows print from left to right and from top to bottom of a page when
stories are read aloud
● Understands the relationship between print and pictures
● Understands that the message of most books is in the print and not the
pictures
By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
● Recognizes the shapes and names of all the letters in the alphabet (both
uppercase and lowercase letters)
● Writes many uppercase and lowercase letters on his own
Books and print
The alphabet
What children should be able to do
by the end of kindergarten
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By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
● Understands that spoken words are made up of separate sounds
● Recognizes and makes rhymes
● Identifies words that have the same beginning sound
● Puts together, or blends, spoken sounds into simple words
By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
● Knows a number of letter-sound relationships
● Understands that the order of letters in a written word represents the
order of sounds in a spoken word
● Recognizes some common words on sight, such as a, the, I, said, you, is, are
By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
● Listens carefully to books read aloud
● Asks and answers questions about stories
● Uses what he already knows to help him understand a story
● Predicts what will happen in a story based on pictures or information in
the story
● Retells and/or acts out stories
● Knows the difference between “made-up” (fiction) and “real” (nonfiction)
books and the difference between stories and poems
Sounds in spoken language
Phonics and word recognition
Reading
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By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
● Uses phonemic awareness and letter knowledge to spell and write words
● Begins to spell some words correctly
● Writes his own first and last name and the first names of some friends,
classmates, or family members
● Writes some letters and words as they are said to her
By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
● Plays with and is curious about words and language
● Uses new words in her own speech
● Knows and uses words that are important to school work, such as the
names for colors, shapes, and numbers
● Knows and uses words that are important to daily life, such as street
names and addresses and names for community workers
Spelling and writing
Vocabulary and knowledge of the world
The main source for this list
of accomplishments is
Preventing Reading Difficulties
in Young Children.
For more information about this
book, see Suggested Reading in
the back of this booklet.
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First Grade
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● Talk often with your child to build listening and talking skills.
● Read to and with your child—often. Talk to him about the words and
ideas in books.
● Ask your child’s teacher how you can help your child practice at home
what he is learning at school.
Listen to your child read books from school. Be patient as your child
practices. Let him know you are proud of his reading.
Say the sounds of letters and ask your child to write the letter or letters
that represent the sound.
The top three
Support what your child is learning in school about
relationships between letters and sounds
12
If your child needs help with
developing phonemic awareness or
identifying and naming letters of the
alphabet, read the suggestions in the
kindergarten section of this booklet.
Remember that these two skills are very
important in helping children learn
to read and write.
What to do at home
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Ask your child to point out the letter-sound relationships he is learning in
all of the things you are reading together—books, calendars, labels,
magazines, and newspapers.
Play word games. On cards, write words that contain the letter-sound
relationships he is learning at school. Take turns choosing a card and blending
the sounds to make the word. Then use the word in a sentence.
Say a word your child knows and have him repeat the word. Then help him
write the word the way he hears it.
Write a word on paper and cut the letters apart (or use plastic or foam
letters). Mix the letters and have your child spell a word by putting the letters
in order.
As you are reading with your child, point out words that have similar
spellings, such as hop and pop. Ask him to write similar words, for example,
top, mop, and cop.
Encourage your child to write often—for example, letters and thank-you
notes, simple stories, and grocery lists.
When you read together, stop now and then to talk about the meaning of
the book. Help her make connections between what’s happening in the book
and her own life and experiences, or to other books you’ve read together. Ask
her questions so that she talks about the information in a non-fiction book, or
about the characters or events of a fiction book. Encourage your child to ask
questions. Ask her to explain what the book was about, in her own words.
Encourage your child to spell and write
Help your child build vocabulary, knowledge of the
world, and comprehension
1
1
3
4
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4
Before you come to the end of a story, ask your child to predict what might
happen next or how the story will end.
Talk about new words and ideas that your child has read or heard. Ask her
to make up sentences with the new words or use the words in other situations.
Help her to find out more about new ideas by using appropriate web sites.
Read magazines and newspapers together. Get him interested in what’s
happening in other parts of the world.
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Developing talking and listening abilities
Teaching about books and print
The teacher…
helps children use language that is
appropriate for different audiences and
purposes.
The children…
use speaking and listening for many
purposes, including getting and giving
information, giving opinions, and
talking with teachers and classmates.
They talk about what has been read
to them or what they have read. They
retell stories that they have heard read
aloud. They make up and tell stories
based on their own experiences. They
use the more formal language
expected at school, such as complete
sentences.
The teacher…
reads aloud to the children often,
sharing many different types of books
and other print materials. She shows
her enthusiasm for reading and her
eagerness for the children to learn to
read. As she reads, she shows the parts
of print such as the beginnings and
endings of sentences, new paragraphs,
and different punctuation marks.
The children…
are excited about being read to and
about learning to read. They recognize
the titles of books and ask the teacher
to read their favorites. They spend part
of the day looking at books or pretend
reading books of their choice.
In effective first grade classrooms, you will see literacy instruction that
focuses on…
What to look for in first grade
classrooms
32
Teaching about the alphabet
Teaching phonemic awareness
The teacher…
provides explicit instruction in
phonemic awareness. She shows the
children how to do phonemic
awareness activities and helps them
with feedback. The activities are short
and fun. (See the next page for
examples of each activity.)
The children…
practice a lot with phonemes. For
example, they clap out the sounds
they hear in words (segmentation),
put sounds together to make words
(blending), add or drop sounds from
words (phoneme addition and
deletion), and replace sounds in
words (phoneme substitution).
The teacher…
makes sure that children can recognize
and name all of the letters of the
alphabet, both uppercase and
lowercase.
The children…
can quickly name the letters of the
alphabet in order and recognize all
letters. They use their knowledge of
letters when they write.
The teacher…
explicitly teaches the children lettersound
relationships in a clear and
useful sequence. The teacher also
teaches children “irregular” words
they will see and read often, but that
do not follow the letter-sound
relationships they are learning. These
are often called sight words—words
such as said, is, was, are.
The children…
learn to blend sounds to read words—
first one-syllable words and, later,
words with more than one syllable.
They read easy books that include the
letter-sound relationships they are
learning as well as sight words that
they have been taught. They recognize
and figure out the meaning of
compound words (words made of two
words put together, such as
background). They practice writing the
letter-sound relationships in words,
sentences, messages, and their own
stories.
Teaching phonics and word recognition
33
Phonemic
awareness
activities that
you may see in
first grade
classrooms
Phoneme deletion: Children recognize the word that
remains when you take away a phoneme.
Example
Teacher: What is space without the /s/?
Children: Space without the /s/ is pace.
Phoneme addition: Children make a new word by adding a phoneme to a word.
Example
Teacher: What word do you have if you add /p/ to the beginning of lace?
Children: Place.
Phoneme substitution: Children substitute one phoneme for another to make a
new word.
Example
Teacher: The word is rag. Change /g/ to /n/. What’s the new word?
Children: Ran.
34
Although there are several different approaches to
teaching phonics, here are some activities that you are
likely to see in first grade classrooms.
● Children sort out objects and pictures by the beginning sounds they have
studied such as: /b/, /c/, and /t/. They put the objects in baskets labeled
with the beginning letter. “I have a turtle. It goes in the T basket.” “This
cup goes in the C basket.”
● The teacher teaches the –ing spelling pattern and sounds, pointing out
–ing words in books. The children look for examples of –ing words in
books in the classroom library. “I found singing!” “This book has wing!”
They copy the words on index cards and add them to the word wall
under the heading “–ing words.”
● The teacher helps children use plastic letters to spell out words containing
sounds they have studied. She starts with two letter words and moves on
to longer words. “Find two letters and make the word in. Now add one
letter to make the word pin. Now add a letter to make the word spin.
Using those same letters, change the word to pins.”
● The teacher reads a poem written on chart paper to the class, pointing to
each word as he reads. When he’s done, he invites children to circle the
words beginning with the /p/ sound, saying the word as they circle it.
Phonics
instruction
35
The teacher…
provides opportunities for children to
practice writing skills independently in
both whole group and learning center
settings. She makes spelling a part of
writing activities. She helps children
begin to think through their writing
efforts—planning, writing drafts, and
revising.
The children…
use writing more and more as a way
to communicate ideas. They begin to
organize their writing by planning,
writing a draft copy, and editing it.
They continue to use some invented
spelling, but are learning the correct
spellings of most of the words that
they write.
The teacher…
talks with the children about
important new vocabulary words and
helps them relate the new words to
their own knowledge and experience.
He makes a point of using new words
in classroom discussions. He urges the
children to use these words when they
talk and write.
The children…
talk about the meanings of words and
use new words when they talk and
write. They begin to recognize words
that are alike (synonyms) and words
that are opposite (antonyms). They
also begin to recognize the roles of
different words in sentences—words
that name (nouns) and words that
show action (verbs). They understand
that the language they use in school is
more formal than the language they
use at home and with friends.
Developing spelling and writing
Building vocabulary and knowledge of the world
36
Building comprehension
The teacher…
reads aloud to children often and
discusses books with them before,
during, and after reading. The teacher
listens to children read aloud, corrects
their errors, and asks them questions
about what they are reading. He
shows children how to use mental
plans, or strategies, to get meaning
from what they read.
The children…
read aloud with accuracy and show
that they understand what they’re
reading. They read books (fiction,
nonfiction, and poetry) that are
appropriate for the time in the school
year. They make connections between
what they already know and what they
are reading. They pay attention to
their reading and recognize when
something doesn’t make sense. They
summarize and discuss what they read
with classmates and their teacher.
They choose to read on their own and
enjoy reading.
37
The following is a list of some accomplishments you can expect of your child by
the end of first grade. This list is based on research in the fields of reading, early
childhood education, and child development. Remember, though, that children
don’t develop and learn at the same pace and in the same way. Your child may be
more advanced or need more help than others in her age group. You are, of
course, the best judge of your child’s abilities and needs. You should take the
accomplishments as guidelines and not as hard-and-fast rules. If you have
concerns or questions about your child’s reading development, talk to his teacher.
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
● Knows the difference between letters and words
● Knows that there are spaces between words in print
● Knows that print represents spoken language and contains meaning
● Knows some of the parts of print, such as the beginnings and endings of
sentences, where paragraphs begin and end, and different punctuation
marks
● Begins to understand why people read—to learn and enjoy
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
● Can recognize and name all of the letters of the alphabet
Books and print
The alphabet
What children should be able to
do by the end of first grade
38
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
● Can count the number of syllables in a word
● Can put together and break apart the sounds of most one-syllable words
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
● Can show how spoken words are represented by written letters that are
arranged in a specific order
● Can read one-syllable words using what he knows about phonics
● Uses phonics to sound out words he doesn’t know
● Can recognize some irregularly spelled words, such as have, said, you,
and are
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
● Reads aloud first grade books and understands what they mean
● Can tell when he is having problems understanding what he is reading
● Reads and understands simple written instructions
● Predicts what will happen next in a story
● Discusses what she already knows about topics of books she is reading
● Can ask questions (how, why, what if?) about books she is reading
● Can describe, in his own words, what he has learned from a book he is
reading
● Can give a reason for why he is reading a book (to be entertained, to
follow directions, to learn about a non-fiction topic, for example)
Sounds in spoken language
Phonics and word recognition
Reading
39
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
● Uses invented (or developmental) spelling to try to spell words on
his own
● Understands that there is a correct way to spell words
● Uses simple punctuation marks and capital letters
● Writes for different purposes—stories, explanations, letters, lists
● Writes things for others to read (by thinking of ideas, writing draft copies,
and revising drafts)
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
● Uses language with more control (such as speaking in complete
sentences)
● Understands that the language used in school is more formal than the
language used at home and with friends
● Talks about the meaning of words and uses new words when he speaks
and writes
● Begins to see that some words mean the same thing (synonyms) and
some words have opposite meanings (antonyms)
● Begins to recognize that words play different roles in sentences (for
example, some words—nouns—name things and some words—verbs—
show action)
Spelling and writing
Vocabulary
The main source for the list of
accomplishments is Preventing Reading
Difficulties in Young Children. For more
information about this book, see Suggested
Reading in the back of this booklet.
40
41
Second
and
third grades
42
12
12
The top three
Use reading opportunities to help your child
develop fluency
Find opportunities for your child to spell and write
● Talk often with your child to build listening and speaking skills.
● Read to and with your child often. Talk to her about the words and
ideas in books. Encourage your child to read on her own.
● Ask your child’s teacher how you can help your child practice at home
what she is learning at school.
Listen to your child read books that he has brought home from school. Be
patient as your child practices reading. Let him know that you are proud of his
reading.
If your child is not a very fluent reader (that is, she reads slowly and makes
lots of mistakes), ask her to reread a paragraph or page a few times.
Encourage your child to write often—for example, letters and thank-you
notes to relatives and friends, simple stories, e-mails, and items for the
grocery list.
Help your child learn the correct spellings of words.
What to do at home
Find opportunities to help your child develop vocabulary,
knowledge of the world, and comprehension
1
2
3
4
43
Talk about new words that your child has read or heard. Ask her to make up
sentences with the new words or use the words in other situations.
Help your child use the dictionary or thesaurus to check on the meanings of
new words she reads or hears.
Help your child become aware of prefixes, suffixes, and root words. Point
them out in books you are reading together or in print materials around the
house. Ask her to think of other words related to the words you are discussing.
P A R E N T T A L K
“Can you think of any other words that have the word move in them?”
(Some possible answers are moveable, movement, moving, and moved.)
“Here’s the word disappear. What other words do you know that start with
dis-?” (Some possible answers are disappoint, disagree, and disbelieve.)
Show your child how to use context—the sentences, words, and pictures
around an unfamiliar word—to figure out the word’s meaning.
P A R E N T T A L K
Read a line from a book, such as this line from Eric Carle’s Pancakes,
Pancakes! “Take a sickle and cut as much wheat as the donkey can carry.”
Then ask a question, such as “Look at the picture of Jack cutting the wheat.
What is he using? That’s right, it’s a sickle. A sickle is a tool for cutting
wheat and other kinds of grain.”
44
As you read a book with your child, stop now and then to talk to her about
the meaning of the book. Help her relate the experiences or events in the
book to experiences or events in her life or to other books you have read
together. Ask her questions that encourage her to talk about the information in
a nonfiction book, or about the characters or events of a fiction book.
Encourage your child to ask questions. Ask her to tell in her own words what the
book was about.
5
45
Promoting reading accuracy
Building fluency
The teacher…
helps children continue to use their
knowledge of phonics to sound out
and pronounce new words. The
teacher helps children recognize
simple, common spelling patterns in
words. She also helps children learn
the spellings and meanings of word
parts such as prefixes, suffixes, and
root words.
The children…
become more able to read words
accurately by using their knowledge of
phonics. They use the other words in a
sentence (the context) to figure out
the pronunciations and meanings of
new words.
The teacher…
reads aloud to children, modeling
fluent reading. She makes sure that
children are working on developing
fluency and monitors their progress.
By listening to children read aloud, or
by sometimes timing children’s
reading rates, the teacher ensures that
children are becoming fluent readers.
The children…
are becoming more fluent readers by
reading, reading, reading. They are
improving their oral reading fluency by
rereading selections aloud.
In effective second and third grade classrooms, you will see literacy instruction
that focuses on…
What to look for in second and third
grade classrooms
46
Teaching spelling and writing
The teacher…
teaches some common spelling
patterns. He encourages children to
write in many different forms, such as
letters, stories, poetry, reviews,
directions, and reports. He helps
children prepare for and plan their
writing. He teaches them how to
revise, edit, and refine what they have
written and helps them write using a
computer.
The children…
write often, and for different audiences
and purposes. They correctly spell
previously studied words. When they
spell new words, they represent all of
the sounds in the words. In their
writing, the children use figurative
language, dialogue, and vivid
descriptions. They read their writing to
others and discuss one another’s
writing, offering helpful suggestions.
In second and third grade classrooms, effective
instruction will include some of the following activities for
building fluency.
● Teachers listen to individual children read aloud and provide assistance
and encouragement as they repeatedly read until they are fluent.
● Teachers read aloud and children read along as a group. The children
repeat the reading until they are fluent.
● In a listening center, children read along in their books as they listen to a
fluent reader read a book on an audiotape. The children read with the
tape until they can read the book without support.
● Pairs of children read paragraphs from a book to each other, taking turns
and assisting each other until they can read the paragraphs fluently.
● Teachers time children as they read aloud paragraphs or pages of a
selection. They also note children’s reading errors.
Fluency
instruction
47
Developing vocabulary and knowledge of the world
The teacher…
is excited about words and shows
students that they have a personal
interest in learning new and intriguing
words. He tries to develop children’s
awareness of and interest in words,
their meanings, and their power. As
the teacher reads aloud to children, he
discusses some of the important new
words in the book. He relates new
words to words the children already
know and to their experiences. The
teacher encourages children to read a
lot, both in school and outside of
school. He encourages them to
explore topics that interest them and
to use a variety of sources of
information, including the Internet.
The children…
are interested in learning new words
and are eager to share new vocabulary
at school and at home. They are
learning how to figure out the
meanings of unknown words by using
word parts such as prefixes, suffixes,
and root words. They are able to use
different parts of speech correctly,
including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs. They read a lot on their own,
and explore topics independently,
often using computers.
48
In second and third grade classrooms, effective
instruction will include both specific word instruction and
instruction in word learning strategies.
Specific word instruction
● Teachers teach specific words from selections the students are about to
read. These words are important for the students to know in order to
understand what they will read.
● Teachers use the new words over an extended period of time.
● The children see, hear, and work with the words in many ways and in
various contexts.
Word learning strategies
● Teachers show children how to use the dictionary and thesaurus to learn
about the meanings of words. Teachers show how some words have more
than one definition, and they teach children how to find the right
definition for their particular situation.
● Teachers teach children how to use word parts (prefixes, suffixes, and root
words) to determine the meaning of unknown words.
● Teachers provide instruction in how to use the meanings of known words
in a reading selection (context) to figure out the meaning of unknown
words.
Vocabulary
instruction
49
Increasing comprehension
The teacher…
guides children’s understanding of
what they are reading by discussing
selections with them before, during,
and after reading. The teacher shows
children how to use simple strategies
to get meaning from what they read.
The children…
read many different kinds of books,
both with the teacher’s guidance and
on their own. They offer answers to
“how,” “why,” and “what-if”
questions, and read to find the
answers to their own questions. They
compare and contrast characters and
events across stories. They explain and
describe new information in their own
words. They also interpret information
from diagrams, charts, and graphs.
Quality instruction includes teaching children strategies that
they can use to get meaning from the materials they read. These
comprehension strategies include being aware of how well they comprehend a
selection, using graphic organizers, answering questions, asking questions,
recognizing the way stories are organized, and summarizing.
To teach comprehension strategies, teachers first demonstrate the strategy,
tell why it is important, and how, when, and where to use it. Then the children
practice the strategy until they are able to use it on their own.
Here are some examples of strategy instruction:
● To help children understand and remember what they read, a teacher
presents a diagram called a “story map” that shows the structure, or
organization, of simple stories. (See the story map example on the next
page.) She and the children talk about the story they have just read—its
setting (where it takes place), the characters, the problems the characters
face, the different events in the story, the resolutions of the characters’
problems, and the theme or moral of the story. As they talk, the teacher
fills in the story map. After several lessons with their teacher, the children
are able to complete story maps on their own.
● To help children better understand and remember what they have read, a
teacher teaches them how to ask themselves “main idea” questions about
what they are reading. The class has just finished reading a selection about
redwood trees in an informational book. The teacher gives the children
several examples of main idea questions and contrasts them with detail
questions. He points out that the main idea questions often start with
“why” or “how.” Then, under his guidance, the children practice asking
main idea questions about several more selections in the book.
(continued)
50
Reading
comprehension
instruction
51
A Story Map for “The Three Little Pigs”
Setting A make-believe time and place
Characters Mother pig, three little pigs, big bad wolf
Problem or Goal The three little pigs are ready to move out of their mother’s
house and live on their own.
Event 1 The first little pig builds a house of straw. The big bad wolf
blows the house down.
Event 2 The second little pig builds a house of sticks. The big bad
wolf blows the house down.
Event 3 The third little pig builds a house of bricks. The big bad wolf
cannot blow the house down.
Event 4 The big bad wolf runs away or is killed (depending on version).
Solution The three little pigs live happily ever after in the safe brick
house.
Theme or Moral Hard work pays off in the end.
● To help children understand, learn from, and remember the information
in their social studies textbook, a teacher helps them learn how to write a
summary. She demonstrates how to write a summary of one of the sections
in the chapter they are reading. She shows them how to make use of the
section headings and the topic sentences of each paragraph. She then
shows the children how to eliminate details. Under her direction, the
children work together to write summaries of several sections of a chapter
in their social studies textbook. In subsequent lessons the children write
summaries of the chapters in their science book. The teacher provides
feedback so that children include the important parts of the chapters in
their summaries.
Reading comprehension instruction—continued
52
In second and third grades, children improve their word-recognition and wordstudy
skills and develop fluency—their ability to read quickly and accurately.
These years also are the time to extend comprehension and vocabulary
knowledge and to refine writing and spelling skills.
It is critical that children are up to “reading speed” by the end of third grade.
Children who fail to make good progress in reading by the time they enter
fourth grade are likely to have trouble in the upper grades and to drop out of
school before graduating.
The following are lists of some accomplishments that you can expect of your
child by the end of second and third grades. These lists are based on research in
the fields of reading, early childhood education, and child development.
Remember, though, that children don’t develop and learn at the same pace and
in the same way. Your child may be more advanced or need more help than
others in her age group. You are, of course, the best judge of your child’s
abilities and needs. You should take the accomplishments as guidelines and not
as hard-and-fast rules. If you have concerns or questions about your child’s
reading development, talk to his teacher.
53
By the end of second grade, a child…
● Can read a large number of regularly spelled one- and two-syllable words
● Figures out how to read a large number of words with more than two
syllables
● Uses knowledge of phonics to sound out unfamiliar words
● Accurately reads many sight words
By the end of second grade, a child …
● Reads and understands a variety of second grade level fiction and
nonfiction books
● Knows how to read for specific purposes and to seek answers to specific
questions
● Answers “how,” “why,” and “what-if” questions
● Interprets information from diagrams, charts, and graphs
● Recalls information, main ideas, and details after reading
● Compares and connects information read in different books and articles
● Takes part in creative responses to stories, such as dramatizations of stories
and oral presentations
By the end of second grade, a child …
● Pays attention to how words are spelled
● Correctly spells words he has studied
● Spells a word the way it sounds if she doesn’t know how to spell it
● Writes for many different purposes
● Writes different types of compositions (for example, stories,
reports, and letters)
Phonics and word recognition
Reading
Spelling and writing
What children should be able to do by
the end of the second grade
54
● Makes good judgments about what to include in her writing
● Takes part in writing conferences and then revises and edits what he has
written
● Pays attention to the mechanics of writing (for example, spelling,
capitalization, and punctuation) in the final versions of compositions
By the end of second grade, a child …
● Wants to learn new words and share those words at school and home
● Uses clues from the context to figure out what words mean
● Uses knowledge of word parts such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words to
figure out word meanings
● Increases vocabulary through the use of synonyms and antonyms
● Can use different parts of speech correctly, including nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs
● Learns more new words through independent reading
● Explores and investigates topics of interest on her own
Vocabulary
55
By the end of third grade, a child…
● Uses phonics knowledge and word parts (prefixes, roots, suffixes) to figure
out how to pronounce words she doesn’t recognize
By the end of third grade, a child . . .
● Reads with fluency
● Reads a variety of third grade level texts (for example, story books,
informational books, magazine articles, computer screens) with fluency
and comprehension
● Reads longer stories and chapter books independently
● Summarizes major points from both fiction and non-fiction books
● Identifies and then discusses specific words or phrases that interfere with
comprehension
● Discusses the themes or messages of stories
● Asks “how,” “why,” and “what-if” questions
● Distinguishes cause from effect, fact from opinion, and main ideas from
supporting details
● Uses information gathered and his own reasoning to evaluate the
explanations and opinions he reads about
● Understands and reads graphics and charts
● Uses context clues to get meaning from what she reads
By the end of third grade, a child…
● Correctly spells previously studied words
● Independently reviews her own written work for errors in spelling,
capitalization, and punctuation
Reading
Spelling and writing
Phonics and word recognition
What children should be able to do by
the end of the third grade
56
● Begins to use literary words and sentences in his writing, such as figurative
language
● Combines information in compositions from a variety of sources, including
books, articles, and computer information
● With assistance from teachers and classmates, edits and revises her
compositions to make them easier to read and understand
● Discusses her own writing with other children and responds helpfully to
the writing of other children
By the end of third grade, a child…
● Wants to learn and share new words at school and at home
● Uses clues from context to figure out word meanings
● Uses her knowledge of word parts such as prefixes, suffixes, and root
words to figure out word meanings
● Increases his vocabulary through the use of synonyms and antonyms
● Is able to use different parts of speech correctly, including nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs
● Develops her vocabulary and knowledge through independent reading
● Explores and investigates topics of interest on his own
● Uses a variety of sources to find information, including computers
Vocabulary
The main source for
this list of accomplishments is
Preventing Reading Difficulties in
Young Children. For more
information about this book,
see Suggested Reading in the
back of this booklet.
57
Some helpful terms to know
Teachers and day care providers might use these terms when talking to you about how
your child is learning to read. Some of them are used in this booklet.
alphabetic knowledge Knowing the names and shapes of the letters of the
alphabet.
alphabetic principle The understanding that written letters represent sounds.
For example, the word big has three sounds and three letters.
big books Oversized books that allow for the sharing of print and illustrations
with a group of children.
blending Putting together individual sounds to make spoken words.
comprehension The ability to understand and gain meaning from what has
been read.
decodable books Books that are made up of words that contain only the lettersound
relationships that the children are learning, along with a few words that
are taught as sight words.
decode The ability to recognize and read words by translating the letters into
speech sounds to determine the word’s pronunciation and meaning.
developmental spelling The use of letter-sound relationship information to
attempt to write words.
emergent literacy The view that literacy learning begins at birth and is
encouraged through participation with adults in meaningful reading and writing
activities.
environmental print Print that is a part of everyday life, such as signs,
billboards, labels, and business logos.
experimental writing Efforts by young children to experiment with writing by
creating pretend and real letters and by organizing scribbles and marks on
paper. 58
59
explicit instruction Direct, structured, systematic teaching of a task.
fluency The ability to read text accurately and quickly and with expression and
comprehension.
graphic organizers Diagrams that visually represent the organization and
relationships of ideas in a text.
invented spelling See developmental spelling.
irregular words Frequently used words that don’t follow the letter-sound
relationship rules that children are learning.
leveled books Books that have been assigned a particular level (usually a
number or letter, such as Level 1 or Level B) intended to indicate how difficult
the book is for children to read.
literacy Includes all the activities involved in speaking, listening, reading,
writing, and appreciating both spoken and written language.
phonemes The smallest parts of spoken language that combine to form words.
For example, the word hit is made up of three phonemes (/h/ /i/ /t/) and differs
by one phoneme from the words pit, hip, and hot.
phonemic awareness The ability to hear and identify the individual sounds in
spoken words.
phonics The relationship between the sounds of spoken words and the
individual letters or groups of letters that represent those sounds in written
words.
phonological awareness The understanding that spoken language is made up
of individual and separate sounds. Phonological awareness activities can involve
work with rhymes, words, sentences, syllables, and phonemes.
predictable books Books that have repeated words or sentences, rhymes, or
other patterns.
60
prefix A word part such as re-, un-, or pre- that is added to the beginning of a
root word to form a new word with a new meaning.
pretend reading Children’s attempts to “read” a book before they have learned
to read. Usually children pretend read a familiar book that they have practically
memorized.
print awareness Knowing about print and books and how they are used.
root word A word or word part to which a prefix or suffix is added.
segmentation Taking spoken words apart sound by sound.
sight words Words that a reader recognizes without having to sound them out.
Some sight words are “irregular,” or have letter-sound relationships that are
uncommon. Some examples of sight words are you, are, have, and said.
suffix A word part such as –ness, -able, or –er that is added to the end of a root
word to form a new word with a new meaning.
syllable A word part that contains a vowel or, in spoken language, a vowel
sound (e-vent, news-pa-per, pret-ty).
vocabulary The words we must know in order to communicate effectively. Oral
vocabulary refers to words that we use in speaking or recognize in listening.
Reading vocabulary refers to words we recognize or use in print.
word walls Word-study and vocabulary words that are posted on the classroom
wall so all children can easily see them. Usually, word walls are arranged
alphabetically, with words starting with a certain letter listed under that letter for
easy location.
word recognition The ability to identify printed words and to translate them
into their corresponding sounds quickly and accurately so as to figure out their
meanings.
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Bibliography
Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E. H., Scott, J. A., & Wilkinson, I. A. G. (1985). Becoming a
Nation of Readers: The Report of the Commission on Reading. Champaign, IL: Center
for the Study of Reading; Washington, DC: National Institute of Education.
Dickinson, D. K., & Tabors, P. O. (2001). Beginning Literacy with Language: Young
Children Learning at Home and School. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N., & Kuhl, P. K. (2000). The Scientist in the Crib. New York:
Harper Perennial.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment
of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading
Instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development.
Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in
Young Children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Suggested reading for parents and caregivers
Here are some books that can provide you with more information about early reading
and writing.
Apel, K., & Masterson, J. (2001). Beyond Baby Talk: From Sounds to Sentences, a Parent’s
Guide to Language Development. Roseville, CA: Prima Publishing.
Armbruster, B. B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. (2001). Put Reading First: The Research Building
Blocks for Teaching Children to Read: Kindergarten Through Grade 3. Washington,
DC: National Institute for Literacy (available online at
www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading)
Burns, M. S., Griffin, P., & Snow, C. E. (Eds.). (1999). Starting Out Right: A Guide to
Promoting Children’s Reading Success. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Hall, S. L., & Moats, L. C. (1998). Straight Talk about Reading: How Parents Can Make a
Difference during the Early Years. Chicago: NTC Publishing Group.
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Neuman, S. B., Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2000). Learning to Read and Write:
Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children. Washington, DC: National
Association for the Education of Young Children.
Ramey, C. T., & Ramey, S. L. (1999). Right from Birth: Building Your Child’s Foundation for
Life. New York: Goddard Press.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Intergovernmental and Interagency Affairs.
(2002). Helping Your Child Become a Reader. Washington, DC.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Intergovernmental and Interagency Affairs.
(2002). Helping Your Preschool Child. Washington, DC.
Resources for parents and caregivers
The following government groups can provide you with useful information about learning
to read.
The Partnership for Reading
www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading
Even Start Family Literacy Program
www.ed.gov/offices/OESE /CEP
ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education
www.ericeece.org
National Parent Information Network (NPIN)
www.npin.org
ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication
www.indiana.edu/~eric_rec
National Institute for Literacy (NIFL)
www.nifl.gov
No Child Left Behind for Parents
www.nochildleftbehind.gov/parents/index.html
Partnership for Family Involvement in Education
www.pfie.ed.gov/
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If you have young children between the ages of birth and age
4, look for the booklet
A Child Becomes a Reader: Birth through Preschool.
www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading
To order copies of this booklet, contact the National Institute for Literacy at EdPubs, PO Box 1398,
Jessup, MD 20794-1398. Call 800-228-8813 or email edpubs@inet.ed.gov. This booklet can also
be downloaded at The Partnership for Reading web site, www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading.
Second Edition
Spring 2003